My team and I spent a better part of a Tuesday this week with a group of experts from Loyola Marymount University laying the groundwork for updating our school district’s Master Plan for English Learners. During the meeting, the team from the university showed us the following slide:
I’ve written about the history of language acquisition in American education in the past, but not specifically—more from the larger sociological perspective. So, I thought I’d give it another crack from the historical perspective.
The journey of bilingual education in the United States is one of contradiction, negotiation, and continuous transformation. From the nation’s early days through the civil rights era and into our present, the approach of our educational institutions toward language instruction reflects deep cultural and political undercurrents. Understanding this history is essential for today’s educators as we continue to navigate the challenges and opportunities of bilingualism in K-12 education.
Early Foundations: Restriction and Assimilation (1500s–1800s)
The foundation of language policy in the U.S. was laid long before the establishment of formal schooling systems. Early immigrants from Europe brought their languages with them, establishing unofficial use of European languages in various communities and in official documents. However, for Indigenous peoples, the approach was far more restrictive. Their languages were often prohibited in an attempt to assimilate them into the dominant European culture.
During the 1800s, permissive language policies began to take shape, particularly in states with significant immigrant populations. States like Ohio (1849) and Louisiana (1847) passed some of the first bilingual education laws, allowing German, French, and Spanish speakers to learn in their native languages. However, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) and other agreements expanded the use of European languages but continued to overlook the linguistic rights of Indigenous populations.
The Era of Restrictionism: 1900–1960
The early 20th century marked a sharp turn toward language restrictionism, driven by xenophobic attitudes and the rise of nationalism. Policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 targeted specific immigrant groups, reflecting broader social anxieties about non-European influences. During World War II, German and Japanese languages were explicitly banned in schools as part of the war effort, further entrenching the idea of monolingualism as central to national identity.
This period saw the beginning of a deep divide between bilingualism as a cultural asset and the push for assimilation into an English-only framework. Schools, often seen as the front line in this debate, were tasked with ensuring that students were not only educated but also "Americanized."
Civil Rights and the Rise of Bilingual Education: 1960–1995
The 1960s ushered in a civil rights movement that changed the trajectory of language policy in schools. The landmark Lau v. Nichols decision in 1974 recognized that English-only instruction for non-English speakers violated students' civil rights. The ruling, along with the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, paved the way for more inclusive educational practices, aimed at supporting the growing number of English learners (ELs) in public schools.
But the road was far from smooth. The late 20th century also witnessed backlash from English-only proponents who argued that bilingual education hindered national unity. This tension came to a head in the 1990s with the passage of California's Prop 227 in 1998, which effectively dismantled bilingual education programs in favor of English immersion. The pendulum had swung once again toward language restrictionism, reflecting broader political debates about immigration and identity.
The Road to Biliteracy: 1996–Present
The new millennium saw renewed efforts to recognize and support bilingualism in schools, driven by a growing body of research highlighting the cognitive, social, and academic benefits of biliteracy. In 2016, California voters overwhelmingly passed Prop 58, reversing many of the restrictions imposed by Prop 227 and allowing schools to develop bilingual programs that suited their communities.
In 2017, California introduced the English Learner Roadmap Policy, setting a new standard for the education of English learners and embracing the "new ecology of biliteracy." This shift reflects a more nuanced understanding of language acquisition, one that sees multilingualism as an asset rather than a barrier. Programs like the Seal of Biliteracy, which recognizes high school graduates proficient in two or more languages, further reinforce the value of bilingualism in an increasingly globalized world.
What This Means for Educators Today
As educators, we sit at the crossroads of history, policy, and pedagogy. The ebbs and flows of language policy in K-12 education remind us that the classroom is not an isolated space—it is a reflection of the broader societal values and struggles. Each swing of the pendulum between restriction and inclusion has had real impacts on students, particularly English learners.
Today, as we continue to build a more equitable educational system, it’s crucial to remember the lessons of the past. Bilingual education is not just about teaching students a second language; it's about fostering a sense of belonging, supporting academic achievement, and preparing students for a world where multilingualism is increasingly the norm.
Embracing bilingualism in our schools is not just an educational imperative—it is a moral one. We must create environments where students’ linguistic and cultural identities are seen as strengths rather than obstacles. By doing so, we not only honor the diversity of our students but also equip them with the tools they need to succeed in a complex, multilingual world.
The path forward is clear: if we are to create a truly inclusive educational system, we must embrace our students' linguistic diversity and champion the role of bilingual education in helping them thrive.
In conclusion, the history of bilingual education in the U.S. reminds us that language policies have always been deeply intertwined with larger societal trends. As educators, we have the opportunity—and the responsibility—to shape the future of language instruction in ways that affirm our students’ identities and prepare them for success.